Month: August 2017

Decrease Stigma Effects on People Recovering from Mental Illness and HIV with Mindfulness

psyjdc Leave a comment

Decrease Stigma Effects on People Recovering from Mental Illness and HIV with Mindfulness

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“Stigma is considered a mark of disgrace, discredit, and judgment that results in discrimination and exclusion. For people struggling with mental or emotional disturbances, the experience of stigmatization can easily become internalized and result in a profound sense of shame, secrecy, and social isolation. When someone is already experiencing significant internal conflicts, interpersonal difficulties, or severe mental illness, stigmatization by others only serves to intensify suffering. Imagine the potential difference that you can make in the lives of those who are struggling with mental health issues through increasing your own awareness, adopting a mindfully nonjudgmental attitude, and expressing compassion.” – Laura Schenck

 

Stigma is a view that a distinguishing characteristic makes the individual less acceptable to others. This can lead to discrimination where stigmatized people are treated negatively either directly with ugly remarks such as “crazy” or “weird” or indirectly by being avoided or marginalized by others. This can produce fewer work opportunities, harassment, bullying, problems with insurance, and loneliness. The social isolation can even lead to early mortality. Stigma can lead to low self-esteem and self-stigmatization in which the individual adopts that negative stereotypes and as a result there is a loss of self-efficacy This leads to the individual ceasing trying to make things better, thinking “why try?”

 

Stigmas are associated with a number of different characteristics, situations, and diseases. Very common stigmas involve mental illness and HIV infection, both of which are viewed negatively. Indeed, in some studies, it has been found that over half of the interviewees had very negative attitudes toward people with either mental illness or HIV infection. Although efforts are being made to reduce these stigmas there is also a need to address the self-stigmatization process and the effect of the stigma on the individuals with mental illness and HIV infection.

 

Mindfulness promotes non-judgmental awareness in which the individual perceives things just as they are without labelling or making value judgements about them. It also promotes the ability to adaptively cope with emotions and reduces worry and rumination. These can be useful in overcoming stigmas and their effects, especially self-stigmas. Self-compassion by promoting positive self-perceptions can be an antidote to self-stigmatization. So, mindfulness and self-compassion may buffer the individual from the effects of stigma and self-stigmatization.

 

In today’s Research News article “The Differential Moderating Roles of Self-Compassion and Mindfulness in Self-Stigma and Well-Being Among People Living with Mental Illness or HIV.” (See summary below). Yang and Mak recruited adult individuals with mental illness or with HIV. They completed measures of mindfulness, self-compassion, self-stigma content and process, and life-satisfaction. These data were then used in a regression analysis to determine the interrelationships between stigma, mindfulness, and self-compassion, and the effects of stigmas.

 

They found that the higher the levels of mindfulness and self-compassion in the individuals with mental illness or HIV, the higher the levels of life satisfaction. Conversely, they found that the higher the levels of self-stigma content the lower the levels of life satisfaction. They also found that when self-compassion and mindfulness were low, self-stigma content was significantly and negatively associated with life satisfaction. But when self-compassion and mindfulness were high, self-stigma content was not significantly associated with life satisfaction. Hence mindfulness and self-compassion had beneficial associations on the quality of life in stigmatized individuals both directly and indirectly by buffering them against the negative effects of stigma.

 

It needs to be kept in mind that these results are correlational and causation cannot be concluded. But, the beneficial associations of mindfulness and self-compassion with reduced stigma effects, suggests that training in mindfulness and self-compassion may be beneficial for people with mental illness and HIV in overcoming stigma effects and improving their quality of life. The present results are sufficiently encouraging to justify a randomized controlled trial of the effects of mindfulness and self-compassion training on stigmatized individuals. Developing mindfulness and self-compassion in stigmatized individuals may markedly improve the lives of these suffering individuals.

 

So, Decrease Stigma Effects on People Recovering from Mental Illness and HIV with Mindfulness.

 

“So, the bad news is that there may not be a way to stop processing automatic, stigmatizing thoughts. However, the good news, according to Inzlicht and Segal, is that we don’t need to. Instead, we should focus on having good intentions to not stigmatize and remain aware and nonjudgmentally accepting of these automatic thoughts–so as not to act on them. Considering the thousands of automatic thoughts each person has everyday, mindfulness may be a good start to ensuring that what we believe coincides with how we act. And this may, ultimately, contribute to the betterment of the live’s of those afflicted with mental illness.” – Veerpal Bambrah

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Yang, X. & Mak, W.W.S. The Differential Moderating Roles of Self-Compassion and Mindfulness in Self-Stigma and Well-Being Among People Living with Mental Illness or HIV. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 595. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0635-4

 

Abstract

In addition to endorsing the content of stigmatizing thoughts (self-stigma “content”), how frequently and automatically individuals think about these thoughts (self-stigma “process”) also have implications for their well-being. The present study examined the roles of self-compassion and mindfulness in moderating the relationships of self-stigma content and process with subjective well-being of people in recovery of mental illness (PMI) and people living with HIV (PLHIV). Participants included 169 PMI and 291 PLHIV in Hong Kong who reported their levels of self-compassion, mindfulness, self-stigma content and process, and life satisfaction. Path analyses indicated that the proposed model fitted the two samples well, χ2(10) = 19, p = .04, CFI = .98, NNFI = .93, and RMSEA = .04. In both groups, self-compassion and mindfulness were significantly associated with life satisfaction. Self-compassion moderated the relationship between self-stigma content and life satisfaction among PLHIV, while mindfulness moderated the relationship between self-stigma process and life satisfaction among PMI. The differential moderating roles of self-compassion and mindfulness in buffering the effects of self-stigma content and process among PMI and PLHIV were identified, and implications for stigma reduction and well-being promotion in different stigmatized groups were discussed.

Improve Adolescent Mental Health and School Performance with Yoga

psyjdc Leave a comment

Improve Adolescent Mental Health and School Performance with Yoga

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“school-based yoga cultivates competencies in mind-body awareness, self-regulation, and physical fitness. And classroom teachers benefit as well. Taken together, these competencies may lead to improvements in students’ behavior, mental state, health, and performance, as well as teacher resilience, effectiveness and overall classroom climate.“ – Bethany Butzer

 

Yoga practice has been shown to have a large number of beneficial effects on the psychological, emotional, and physical health of the individual and is helpful in the treatment of mental and physical illness. The acceptance of yoga practice has spread from the home and yoga studios to its application with children in schools. Studies of these school programs have found that yoga practice produces a wide variety of positive psychosocial and physical benefits. These include improved mood state, self-control, aggression and social problems, self-regulation, emotion regulation, feelings of happiness and relaxation, self-esteem, social and physical well-being, self-concept, tolerance, nonviolence, truthfulness, overall, general, and social self-esteem, positive health, self-adjustment, and working-memory capacity, ability to focus, control behavior under stress, greater kinesthetic awareness, stress reduction and management, and social cohesion, focus, perseverance, and positive relationships. They have also shown that the yoga practice produces lower levels of anxiety, depression, general distress, physical arousal, and hostility, rumination, and intrusive thoughts, and alcohol use.

 

Teachers also note improvements in their students following yoga practice. These include improved classroom behavior and social–emotional skills, concentration, mood, ability to function under pressure, social skills, and attention and lower levels of. Hyperactivity and performance impairment. In addition, school records, academic tests, and physiological measures have shown that yoga practice produces improvements in student grades and academic performance, cortisol concentrations, micronutrient absorption, flexibility, grip strength, abdominal strength, respiratory muscle strength, heart rate variability, and stress reactivity.

 

Although yoga practice has been demonstrated to have great benefits for school children, the studies, in general, were carried out in schools in middle class areas. It is unknown whether yoga practice could have the same benefits with poor, inner city, children. In today’s Research News article “Effectiveness of a School-Based Yoga Program on Adolescent Mental Health and School Performance: Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial.” (See summary below). Frank and colleagues recruited 6th and 9th grade students from an inner city middle school and randomly assigned them to receive either yoga practice or no treatment. The yoga practice occurred for 30 minutes per day for 3 to 4 days per week in the Fall semester and included breathing exercises, yoga postures, and meditation. The students were measured before and after the semester for school engagement, attitudes toward violence, positive and negative emotions, responses to stress, and somatization. In addition, the students’ academic and behavioral records from the school were inspected.

 

They found that the yoga group, compared to the no treatment group, had significantly fewer unexcused absences, fewer detentions, and higher levels of school engagement, primary and secondary coping, emotion regulation, positive thinking, and cognitive restructuring with medium to large effect sizes. Hence the students who engaged in yoga practice during the semester had markedly improved school behavior, ability to cope with stress, and control emotions and thoughts.

 

These are remarkable results. Engagement in yoga practice in school had multiple and significant behavioral and psychological benefits for these middle school students. These results strongly suggest that a larger scale randomized controlled trial with an active control group, e.g. exercise, and longer-term follow-up, should be performed. These results are especially significant as they occurred with inner city, poor, students who are generally highly stressed. This is where the need is great. Yoga practice may be a tremendous asset to these students in coping with the demands of the school environment. This should translate in future years into superior performance and eventual success in school.

 

So, improve adolescent mental health and school performance with yoga.

 

“Aside from the physical benefits of yoga, yoga teaches teens techniques for coping with the unique issues they’re faced with everyday—insecurity about their changing bodies, the enormous pressure to fit in, stressful schedules, and uncertainty about their beliefs and their futures.” – Erica Rodefer

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Frank, J.L., Kohler, K., Peal, A., Bose, B. Effectiveness of a School-Based Yoga Program on Adolescent Mental Health and School Performance: Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 544. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0628-3

 

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a yoga-based social-emotional wellness promotion program, Transformative Life Skills (TLS), on indicators of adolescent emotional distress, prosocial behavior, and school functioning. Participants included 159 students attending an inner-city school district who were randomly assigned to treatment or business-as-usual comparison conditions. Results suggested that students who participated in the TLS program demonstrated significant reductions on unexcused absences, detentions, and increases in school engagement. Significant concurrent improvements in primary engagement stress-coping strategies and secondary engagement stress-coping strategies were noted as well. Specifically, significant increases in student emotion regulation, positive thinking, and cognitive restructuring in response to stress were found. No effects were found for measures of somatization, suspensions, academic grades, or general affect. Student report of treatment acceptability indicated that the intervention was generally well-received and strategies were perceived as socially valid by most participants. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Improve Creativity with Mindfulness

psyjdc Leave a comment

Improve Creativity with Mindfulness

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“Mindfulness meditation is a great technique to learn to help improve creativity. There have been studies done specifically to measure the cognitive rigidity of people who meditate and their ability to solve problems in novel ways. The research shows non-meditators had greater cognitive rigidity than regular meditators, and they also had a tendency to apply difficult or outdated solutions to easy problems based on their past experiences, this was not the case for people who meditated.” – Bianca Rothschild

 

The problem solving ability of humans has been a key to their dominance of their environment. So, it’s important that we understand it and discover how to train it and maximize it. Problem solving most frequently involves logic and reasoning, sometimes along with mathematics. In this case focused attention is the key. The mind wandering off topic interferes with the concentration required for obtaining the solution. But, when a solution does not occur and the individual fails to solve the problem a completely different process transpires producing insight. If logic and reason fail, then fanciful and out-of-the box thinking may be needed. In this case mind wandering, taking the thought process away from the failed logical strategy, is superior, often producing a solution in a flash, an “aha” moment. In this case focused attention prevents the individual from seeing an unusual or creative solution. While the mind wandering off topic increases the discursive thinking that is required for obtaining the insightful solution.

 

Mindfulness is the ability to focus on what is transpiring in the present moment. It involves a greater emphasis on attention to the immediate stimulus environment. Mindful people generally have better attentional abilities and have fewer intrusive thoughts and less mind wandering. As a result, mindfulness has been shown to be associated with differences in thought processes. Most of the time these differences are associated with beneficial results, but sometimes they can lead to negative outcomes including a greater tendency to have false memories. So mindfulness should improve problem solving involving logic, reason, and focused attention, while it should interfere with insightful, creative problem solving.

 

These two forms of problem solving are, in general, associated with different neural systems. Focused attention involves a number of brain structures centered in the frontal lobes. Creative, discursive thinking involves a system of structures known as the Default Mode Network (DMN) involving the parietal lobe, cingulate cortex, and insula. One way to investigate the influence of mindfulness on creative problem solving is to look at the activity of the Default Mode Network (DMN) during creative problem solving and insight in practitioners with varying amounts of mindfulness training.

 

 

In today’s Research News article “Creativity Is Enhanced by Long-Term Mindfulness Training and Is Negatively Correlated with Trait Default-Mode-Related Low-Gamma Inter-Hemispheric Connectivity.” (See summary below). Berkovich-Ohana and colleagues recruited non-meditators and meditators with short (180-1430 hours), intermediate (1740-2860 hours), and long-term (3870-23,000 hours) meditation practice. Divergent creative thinking was measured with the alternative uses task which requires participants to generate as many and unusual uses of conventional, everyday objects. While the participants were engaged in the creativity measurements the Electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded from the scalp.

 

They found that the intermediate and long-term meditators, compared to the non-meditators and short-term meditators, had significantly greater performance on the creative thinking task including a greater number of alternative uses (fluency) and a greater number of categories (flexibility) of alternative uses. Further, they found that the lower the EEG activity in the gamma frequency range between brain hemispheres the greater the creative thinking. These results suggest that meditation practice alters brain processing, changing the interhemispheric connectivity of the DMN to improve creative thinking.

 

The study found that meditation practice improves creative thinking which is related to lower functional connectivity for the Default Mode Network (DMN). This, in turn, suggests that the lower ability of the mind wandering system of the brain to affect other brain regions the better the creative thinking. Hence, suppressing mind wandering while engaged in the alternative uses creative thinking task improves creative thinking.

 

So, improve creativity with mindfulness.

 

“A central aspect of creativity is divergent thinking, which refers to the ability to come up with lots of different ideas. . . .  there is a small influence of mindfulness techniques on divergent thinking. That is, people who engage in mindfulness exercises tend to do a better job of generating more ideas than those who do not. They are better, but not much better.” – Art Markman

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., Ben-Soussan, T.D., Goldstein, A. Creativity Is Enhanced by Long-Term Mindfulness Training and Is Negatively Correlated with Trait Default-Mode-Related Low-Gamma Inter-Hemispheric Connectivity. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 717. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0649-y

 

Abstract

It is becoming increasingly accepted that creative performance, especially divergent thinking, may depend on reduced activity within the default mode network (DMN), related to mind-wandering and autobiographic self-referential processing. However, the relationship between trait (resting-state) DMN activity and divergent thinking is controversial. Here, we test the relationship between resting-state DMN activity and divergent thinking in a group of mindfulness meditation practitioners. We build on our two previous reports, which have shown DMN activity to be related to resting-state log gamma (25–45 Hz) power and inter-hemispheric functional connectivity. Using the same cohort of participants (three mindfulness groups with increasing expertise, and controls, n = 12 each), we tested (1) divergent thinking scores (Flexibility and Fluency) using the Alternative Uses task and (2) correlation between Alternative Uses scores and DMN activity as measured by resting-state gamma power and inter-hemispheric functional connectivity. We found that both Fluency and Flexibility (1) were higher in the two long-term mindfulness groups (>1000 h) compared to short-term mindfulness practitioners and control participants and (2) negatively correlated with gamma inter-hemispheric functional connectivity (frontal-midline and posterior-midline connections). In addition, (3) Fluency was significantly correlated with mindfulness expertise. Together, these results show that long-term mindfulness meditators exhibit higher divergent thinking scores in correlation with their expertise and demonstrate a negative divergent thinking—resting-state DMN activity relationship, thus largely support a negative DMN-creativity connection.

Yoga’s Lost Spirituality

psyjdc Leave a comment

Yoga’s Lost Spirituality

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

Yoga developed in India millennia ago as a deep spiritual practice. It developed as a contemplative practice that unified body and mind. Yoga was known to have physical benefits, but the most important benefit was seen to be spiritual development. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in has address to the United Nations proposing an International Day of Yoga stated that “yoga is not just about fitness or exercise, it is about changing one’s lifestyle.” It is “a holistic way of life that stresses harmony between man and nature.”

 

In its roots, Yoga was engaged in as a meditative practice. Awareness was focused on the movements, the postures, the sensations from the muscles, joints, and tendons, and in coordination with an aware controlled breathing. It was more complex, but in essence, no different from the simple meditative practice of following the breath. It was a mind-body focused attention practice, one that has immense subtlety and beauty and that can lead to profound insight.

 

But, as yoga emerged and was practiced in the west it was secularized. This was for good reason, as western society was not ready to accept an ancient eastern spiritual practice. In a sense, the tactic of secularization worked and resulted in an unprecedented and rapid acceptance of yoga in western culture. I commented to my yogini spouse that a clear indicator of yoga being not only accepted, but adopted by western culture was when yoga attire became a fashion statement.

 

There are many forms of yoga and many practitioners who are focused on the spiritual aspects of yoga. But, to the vast majority of westerners yoga is an exercise for physical fitness. It is a means to mold the body to look good, as a health promoting practice, and as a strategy to help loose weight. These are good and reasonable goals. But, they have replaced the far more important spiritual development promoted by yoga. As Jon Kabat-Zinn has remarked, ‘there is the potential for something priceless to be lost.’

 

Our research has demonstrated that a typical western yoga practice produces significantly less spiritual benefits than a meditation practice does, that spiritual awakening experiences are far less likely to be associated with yoga practice than meditation practice, and when people practice both yoga and meditation, it is the meditation component that is responsible for spiritual development. In fact, the way western yoga is practiced, it produces smaller increases in mindfulness than meditation.

 

Fortunately, the recognition that spirituality is being lost may very well be the first step toward the recovery of the spiritual nature of yoga. People who practice yoga feel something special has happened during the practice, but don’t have the understanding of what it is. Yoga practitioners do show increased mindfulness and spirituality, but far less than meditation practitioners. They interpret these feelings, not as spiritual but as relaxation, as a high, similar to a runners high, or as a physical arousal. It is not a great leap to reinterpret this as the beginnings of a deep spiritual experience.

 

Now that yoga has been accepted in the west and not looked on as some kind of pagan or demonic ritual, there is the potential to slowly and gently reinsert the fundamental spirituality of yoga practice. The promotion of deep and relatively lengthy yoga nidra as the conclusion of each yoga session is an important beginning. The return to a deep focused awareness being preeminent in yoga practice is another important step.

 

There also needs to be teaching that yoga spirituality is not a religion. It is entirely different and does not in any way contradict the religious beliefs or practices that are common in the west. In fact, it can greatly enhance the religious experience. This is a subtle teaching that cannot be taught without the groundwork being completed of the experience of the spiritual feelings that are the outgrowth of focused awareness yoga practice. But, once in place, a new understanding can emerge that is entirely acceptable to western sensibilities. It can lead to a return to the true spiritual nature of yoga.

 

So, practice what Prime Minister Modi termed “India’s gift to the world,” and become healthier physically, psychologically and spiritually.

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

Reduce Negative Emotions and Stress Sensitivity with Mindfulness

psyjdc Leave a comment

Reduce Negative Emotions and Stress Sensitivity with Mindfulness

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“Mindfulness training teaches people to be fully attentive to their present experience in a nonjudgmental way, which is believed to help reduce the rumination common to mood disorders. A mindful perspective teaches people how to apply a brake between a single lonely thought and what could be a resulting chain of distressing thoughts and feelings,” – J. David Creswell

 

Mindfulness training has been shown to improve the psychological well-being of healthy people. It also has been shown to be beneficial for a variety of mental health problems, including anxiety, depression, Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline personality disorder, impulsivity, obsessive compulsive disorder, phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder, sexual dysfunction, suicidality and even with psychosis.  Mindfulness is thought to work in part by improving the physiological and psychological responses to stress. This increases the individual’s ability to withstand the negative effects of stress on emotions and to cope with it adaptively. It also appears to work by improving emotion regulation. This improves the individual’s ability to fully sense and experience emotions, but respond to them in more appropriate and adaptive ways. In other words, mindful people are better able to cope with stress and experience yet control emotions.

 

These is a very important consequence of mindfulness. Humans are very emotional creatures and emotions can be very pleasant, providing the spice of life. But, when they get extreme they can produce misery and even mental illness. Humans, particularly in the developed world, are also embedded in a high stress environment that can damage their health and well-being. So, it is important to understand, in depth, how mindfulness training may reduce responses to stress and improve the responses to emotions. It would also be useful to learn how these factors change over the course of treatment.

 

In today’s Research News article “The Shape of Change in Perceived Stress, Negative Affect, and Stress Sensitivity During Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction.” (See summary below). Snoppe and colleagues recruited people who had enrolled in a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program that met once a week for 2.5 hours for eight weeks and consisted of body scan, meditation, and yoga practice. Participants were also request to practice at home for 40 minutes each day. The participants completed pretraining measures and daily on-line diaries during the 8-weeks of the program which included measures of perceived stress, mindfulness practice, and negative emotions including depression, tension, anger, and fatigue.

 

They found that over the 8 weeks of the program negative emotions and perceived stress decreased in a linear fashion, improving day by day. They also found that the lower the daily levels of perceived stress, the lower the levels of negative emotions. In addition, they found that the degree of association between stress and negative emotions did not change over the 8 weeks. So, mindfulness training appeared to reduce their levels but did not decouple their mutual influences. Hence, day by day of mindfulness practice produces a progressive reduction in perceived stress and negative emotions.

 

It has been well established that mindfulness programs like MBSR are effective in reducing the physiological and psychological responses to stress and negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, anger, and fatigue. What is new in the present study is the documentation of the linear growth in these benefits. Each day of practice appeared to produce increased benefit. It would be interesting to follow this growth over a longer period of time to determine at what point do the benefits stabilize. But for now, it appears that the more practice the better.

 

So, reduce negative emotions and stress sensitivity with mindfulness.

 

“Instead of ‘turning away’ from pain in avoidance we can learn to gently ‘turn towards’ what we’re experiencing. We can bring a caring open attention towards the wounded parts of ourselves and make wise choices about how to respond to ourselves and to life. It’s a paradox that we all must understand: It is by turning towards negative emotions that we find relief from them – not by turning away.” – Melli O’Brien

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Snippe, E., Dziak, J.J., Lanza, S.T., Nyklíček, I., Wichers, M.  The Shape of Change in Perceived Stress, Negative Affect, and Stress Sensitivity During Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 728. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0650-5

 

Abstract

Both daily stress and the tendency to react to stress with heightened levels of negative affect (i.e., stress sensitivity) are important vulnerability factors for adverse mental health outcomes. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) may help to reduce perceived daily stress and stress sensitivity. The purpose of this study was to examine how change in perceived stress, negative affect (NA), and the decoupling between perceived stress and NA evolved over the course of a MBSR program, without making any a priori assumptions on the shape of change. Seventy-one adults from the general population participating in MBSR provided daily diary assessments of perceived stress and NA during MBSR. The time-varying effect model (TVEM) indicated that perceived stress and NA decreased in a linear fashion rather than in a nonlinear fashion, both as a function of time and as a function of the cumulative number of days of mindfulness practice. Both TVEM and multilevel growth modeling showed that the association between perceived stress and NA did not decrease over the course of MBSR. The findings support the hypothesis that MBSR reduces NA and also reduces the extent to which individuals perceive their days as stressful. Also, the results suggest that there is a dose-response relationship between the amount of mindfulness practice and reductions in daily stress and NA.

Decrease the Negative Effects of Gender Nonconformity with Mindfulness

psyjdc 2 Comments

Decrease the Negative Effects of Gender Nonconformity with Mindfulness

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“Humanity’s most valuable assets have been the non-conformists. Were it not for the non-conformists, he who refuses to be satisfied to go along with the continuance of things as they are, and insists upon attempting to find new ways of bettering things, the world would have known little progress, indeed.” – John Kenneth Galbraith

 

Gender is defined by our genes. If we have two X Chromosomes we’re female. If we have an XY pair, we’re male. But, the role we play, how we act, based upon gender is learned and very much dependent upon societal norms and mores. “Gender nonconformity (also known as gender atypicality) refers to the incongruence between the biological sex assigned at birth and the socially prescribed gender role.” (American Psychological Association (APA) 2012). This nonconformity occurs associated with all forms of gender identity and sexual orientations.

 

There is always a price that individuals must pay anytime that they violate societal norms. The stigma, stress, and emotionality produced by violating the norms can impact the mental and physical health of the individual. On the other hand, mindfulness has been shown to reduce the physiological and psychological effects of stress, improve the ability to cope with emotions, and improve self-compassion. Thus, there is a need to better understand the effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on the well-being of individuals who are gender nonconformists.

 

In today’s Research News article “Trait Mindfulness and Self-Compassion as Moderators of the Association Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Health.” (See summary below). Keng and colleagues recruited a varied adult sample of over 200 individuals with all forms of gender identity and sexual orientations. They were asked to complete measures of sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, anxiety, depression, subjective well-being, mindfulness, and self-compassion. About 2/3rds of the participants were heterosexual while 21% were gay or lesbian, 5% bisexual, and 6% other orientations.

 

They found that the higher the levels of gender nonconformity the higher the levels of depression and the lower the levels of subjective well-being. Mindfulness was also an important factor with the higher the levels of mindfulness, the lower the levels of anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and the higher the levels of self-compassion and subjective well-being.

 

Although mindfulness was only slightly negatively related to gender nonconformity it had significant moderating influences on the effects of gender nonconformity. People high in mindfulness did not have an association between gender nonconformity and either depression, anxiety, or subjective well-being whereas when the people were low in mindfulness high gender nonconformity was associated with high depression and anxiety and low subjective well-being. They also found that when people were high in self-compassion there was not an association between gender nonconformity and subjective well-being, whereas when the people were low in mindfulness high gender nonconformity was associated with low subjective well-being.

 

The results are the product of correlations and thus cannot be used to determine causal connections. But, the results clearly demonstrate that gender nonconformity is associated with psychological and well-being problems. On the other hand, mindfulness is an antidote, being associated with lower psychological and well-being problems. In addition, mindfulness appears to buffer the individual from the negative psychological influences of gender nonconformity. Hence mindfulness appears to be a promoter of well-being and a protector against gender nonconformity degrading well-being.

 

It will be important in future research to investigate if mindfulness training in people high in gender nonconformity can reduce its negative effects. This may be important in helping people whose gender identity and sexual orientation are contrary to the existing societal mores, improving their psychological health and well-being.

 

So, decrease the negative effects of gender nonconformity with mindfulness.

 

“Improved affect in women was related to improved mindfulness and self-compassion skills, which involved specific subscales for approaching experience and emotions with non-reactivity, being less self-critical and more kind with themselves, and over-identifying less with emotions,” – Willoughby Britton

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Keng, SL. & Liew, K.W.L. Trait Mindfulness and Self-Compassion as Moderators of the Association Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Health. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 615. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0639-0

 

Abstract

Much research has established a negative association between gender nonconformity and psychological health. Less is known however regarding factors that may attenuate the link between gender nonconformity and psychological health. The present study aimed to investigate the association between gender nonconformity and psychological health in a Singaporean sample, and to examine trait mindfulness and self-compassion as potential moderators of the association. A community sample of 206 adults was recruited and completed an online survey anonymously. The survey included measures of gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, trait mindfulness, self-compassion, depression, anxiety, and subjective well-being. Results showed that gender nonconformity positively and significantly predicted depressive symptoms, and negatively predicted subjective well-being. Trait mindfulness moderated the association between gender nonconformity and depression, anxiety, and subjective well-being respectively, with the direction of the moderation effects indicating the role of trait mindfulness as a protective factor against psychological distress. Self-compassion moderated the relationship between gender nonconformity and subjective well-being. Specifically, the association between gender nonconformity and subjective well-being was positive at high levels of self-compassion, and negative at low levels of self-compassion. While cross-sectional in nature, the findings provide preliminary support for the role of trait mindfulness and self-compassion as potential buffers against negative psychological effects of gender nonconformity.

Improve Emotional Exhaustion and Employee Retention with Mindfulness

psyjdc Leave a comment

Improve Emotional Exhaustion and Employee Retention with Mindfulness

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“In ten years of informally and two years of formally teaching agents mindfulness techniques, I can boldly and honestly say there is no downside to introducing it to your employees. I have seen it completely revolutionize things, transforming a call center in amazing ways. I have also seen it integrated on a small level, added as a tool along with many others. Regardless, the results are always positive.” – Debi Mongan

 

Stress is epidemic in the western workplace with almost two thirds of workers reporting high levels of stress at work. In high stress occupations burnout is all too prevalent. It frequently results from emotional exhaustion. Burnout is the fatigue, cynicism, emotional exhaustion, sleep disruption, and professional inefficacy that comes with work-related stress. Sleep disruption is an important consequence of the stress.  This exhaustion produces a loss of enthusiasm, empathy, and compassion.

 

Call centers can be particularly stressful due to a heavy workload, sustained fast work pace, repetitive tasks, lack of control over the job, the blurred relation between feelings and actions, a competitive environment, and being faced with losing a client. These stresses can lead to problems, including visual, auditory, and speech fatigue. Indeed, each year, 60% of employees take sick leave and 39.4% of employees showed psychological distress symptoms and 8.3% found themselves in a severe situation of psychological distress, and 24% were taking psychoactive drugs. This also produces high turnover, with the average employee leaving the job after only a year.

 

One technique to counteract these problems that is gaining increasing attention is mindfulness training. It has been demonstrated to be helpful in the workplace in reducing stress, improving emotional regulation, and treating and preventing burnout in a number of work environments. In today’s Research News article “The Mediating Role of Emotional Exhaustion in the Relationship of Mindfulness with Turnover Intentions and Job Performance.” (See summary below). Reb and colleagues conducted two studies on the relationship of mindfulness with workplace well-being. They recruited call center workers and had them complete measures of mindfulness, emotional exhaustion, and intention to leave the job.

 

They found that the higher the level of the employee’s mindfulness the lower the level of emotional exhaustion and interest in changing jobs. They also found that the higher the level of emotional exhaustion the higher the interest in changing jobs. They further found with a mediation analysis that the majority of the relationship of mindfulness with lower interest in changing jobs was due to the negative relationship of mindfulness with emotional exhaustion which in turn was related to lower interest in changing jobs. So, mindfulness was associated with retention of employees directly and indirectly by being associated with lower emotional exhaustion.

 

In a second study Reb and colleagues recruited worker – supervisor pairs from a variety of industries. They again collected measures of mindfulness, emotional exhaustion, and intention to leave the job but also collected supervisor ratings of the employees’ job performances. They again found that the higher the level of the employee’s mindfulness the lower the level of emotional exhaustion and interest in changing jobs and the higher level of job performance. They also found that the higher the level of emotional exhaustion the higher the interest in changing jobs and the lower the job performance. They further found, as in study 1, with a mediation analysis that the majority of the relationship of mindfulness with lower interest in changing jobs was due to the negative relationship of mindfulness with emotional exhaustion which in turn was related to lower interest in changing jobs. But, they also found that the positive relationship of mindfulness with higher job performance was due to the negative relationship of mindfulness with emotional exhaustion which in turn was related to higher job performance.

 

These are interesting findings but are correlational, so causation cannot be concluded. But, the findings suggest that mindfulness is highly related to job performance and employee retention and better job performance. The results further suggest that these associations of mindfulness are due to a large extent to mindfulness’ relationship with lower emotional exhaustion. In other words, mindfulness appears to be related to less likelihood of leaving the job and better performance on the job both as a direct result of their relationship with mindfulness and indirectly due to mindfulness’ relationship with lower emotional exhaustion.

 

So, improve emotional exhaustion and employee retention with mindfulness.

 

“My advice to companies looking to introduce mindfulness techniques in their contact center culture is simple: start small but cultivate it and tend to it so it grows. One small step for your contact center, one giant leap for your entire company!” – Debi Mongan

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Reb, J., Narayanan, J., Chaturvedi, S., Ekkirala, S. The Mediating Role of Emotional Exhaustion in the Relationship of Mindfulness with Turnover Intentions and Job Performance. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 707. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0648-z

 

Abstract

Mindfulness in the workplace has emerged as a legitimate and growing area of organizational scholarship. The present research examined the role of employee emotional exhaustion in mediating the relationship of mindfulness with turnover intentions and task performance. Drawing on theory and empirical research on both organizational behavior and mindfulness, we predicted that more mindful employees would show lower turnover intentions and higher task performance and that these relationships would be mediated by emotional exhaustion. We tested these hypotheses in two field studies in an Indian context. Study 1 was a field study of call center employees of a multinational organization, an industry in which turnover rates are very high. This study found that mindfulness was associated with lower turnover intentions and less emotional exhaustion, and that emotional exhaustion mediated the relationship between mindfulness and turnover intentions. Study 2 replicated these results in a sample of employees based in major Indian cities and drawn from different industries. In addition, it showed that mindfulness was positively related to supervisor-rated task performance, with emotional exhaustion again playing a mediating role. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our findings, as well as future research directions.

Improve Well-Being in the Workplace with Mindfulness

psyjdc Leave a comment

Improve Well-Being in the Workplace with Mindfulness

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“Toxic emotions disrupt the workplace, and mindfulness increases your awareness of these destructive patterns, helping you recognize them before they run rampant. It’s a way of reprogramming your mind to think in healthier, less stressful, ways.” – Drew Hansen

 

Work is very important for our health and well-being. We spend approximately 25% of our adult lives at work. How we spend that time is immensely important for our psychological and physical health. Indeed, the work environment has even become an important part of our social lives, with friendships and leisure time activities often attached to the work environment. But, more than half of employees in the U.S. and nearly 2/3 worldwide are unhappy at work. This is partially due to work-related stress which is epidemic in the western workplace. Almost two thirds of workers reporting high levels of stress at work. This stress can result in impaired health and can result in burnout; producing fatigue, cynicism, and professional inefficacy.

 

To help overcome unhappiness, stress, and burnout, mindfulness practices have been implemented in the workplace. Indeed, mindfulness practices have been shown to markedly reduce the physiological and psychological responses to stress. As a result, it has become very trendy for business to incorporate meditation into the workday to help improve employee well-being, health, and productivity. For example, Google offers “Search Inside Yourself” classes to teach mindfulness at work. But, although there is a lot of anecdotal evidence of meditation improving well-being and work performance, there is actually very little systematic research on its effectiveness.

 

In today’s Research News article “Acceptability, Feasibility, and Efficacy of a Workplace Mindfulness Program for Public Sector Employees: a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial with Informant Reports.” (See summary below). Bartlett and colleagues performed a pilot study of mindfulness training effects on well-being in the workplace. They recruited adults employed in the public sector and assigned them to either receive a 5-week, 1.5 hours per week, mindfulness training, based upon Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, tailored for the workplace, or self-help education program regarding workplace issues including coping with stress. The participants completed before and after training measures of mindfulness, observable mindfulness behaviors, perceived stress, psychological distress, health-related quality of life, sleep quality, job stressors, absenteeism and presenteeism, social functioning, and job demands and security.

 

They found that the mindfulness trained group had significant improvements, with moderate effect sizes, in mindfulness, perceived stress, psychological distress, health-related quality of life, and social functioning. They also reported significantly less absenteeism, presenteeism, and lost productive days. An analysis of the participants’ reports regarding their participation revealed that the mindfulness training produced improvements in relationships, attention, productivity, stress, emotional regulation, and vigor. Mediation analysis indicated that mindfulness mediated, wholly or in part, the effects of the training on well-being.

 

The results are impressive for a pilot study that did not have a large group of participants. Of course, a larger randomized controlled trial with an active control group is needed to conclusively demonstrate the benefits of mindfulness training. But, the results suggest that mindfulness training produces marked improvement in public sector employee physical and psychological well-being. Although, not measured, the results suggest that the mindfulness training would reduce workplace burnout and improve health and productivity.

 

So, improve well-being in the workplace with mindfulness.

 

“Mindful awareness is an extremely important business skill. It creates a solid foundation for all other Human Resources and Learning and Development initiatives, from sales training to leadership development. By first teaching teams to manage their attention, all other training is maximised. It’s a win-win for both employee and employer.” – Smiling Mind

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Bartlett, L., Lovell, P., Otahal, P., Sanderson, K. Acceptability, Feasibility, and Efficacy of a Workplace Mindfulness Program for Public Sector Employees: a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial with Informant Reports. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 639. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0643-4

 

Abstract

Mindfulness training appears to reduce stress and distress, but little is known about whether it results in changes that can be observed by colleagues, family, or friends or its appropriateness as a workplace stress management intervention for a large and distributed public sector workforce. This study evaluated a pilot 5-week Mindfulness at Work Program (MaWP) for acceptability, feasibility, and efficacy in relation to stress and related mental health and productivity problems for public sector employees. A parallel group randomized controlled trial compared the MaWP intervention (n = 20) with an information-only control (n = 100). Exploratory qualitative and quantitative methods were used to assess changes observed by informants (n = 63). Results suggest a high degree of acceptability, although location and inflexible work schedules presented feasibility obstacles. Compared with the control, the primary outcome of mindfulness improved for MaWP participants (d = 0.57, p < 0.001), as did perceived stress (d = 0.97, p < 0.001), psychological distress (d = 0.61, p < 0.001), health-related quality of life (d = 0.51, p = 0.002), and social functioning (d = 0.08, p = 0.019). All secondary outcomes were at least partly mediated by changes in mindfulness. The intervention thus appears to have potential merit as a workplace intervention for public sector employees across a range of outcomes. Obtaining informant observations was feasible and while qualitative analyses indicated positive changes that supported self-reported outcomes, quantitative analyses returned ambiguous results. A seven-item scale adapted from a popular self-report mindfulness scale for use by informants showed promise, but further work is needed to establish validity, reliability, and scalability of this method of assessing observable changes following mindfulness training.

Desire Nothing

psyjdc Leave a comment

Desire Nothing

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

To reach satisfaction in all
desire its possession in nothing,
To come to the knowledge of all
desire the knowledge of nothing.
To come to possess all
desire the possession of nothing.
To arrive at being all
desire to be nothing.
— St. John of the Cross

 

The instruction to desire nothing is very common in spiritual teachings. But, it is very difficult to actually do. For one thing, desiring nothing in and of itself is a desire. So, to actually successfully follow the instruction you have to completely stop wanting anything including the desire to completely stop wanting anything.

 

If we desire anything it indicates that we want something other than what we have right now. It indicates unhappiness with the present moment. In other words, it suggests that we are not accepting things as they are. So, one way to begin to “desire nothing” is to simply accept everything as it is. Easier said than done! We are designed to constantly strive to change control and improve ourselves and our environment.

 

To “desire nothing” does not mean that we don’t seek things. Our bodies seek air, water, and food in order to survive. But, we don’t have to desire air in order to breathe. The body will take care of breathing without our paying any attention to it or feeling any desire. The difference is one of simply allowing it to be as it is and not trying to control or interfere in it. Just let nature take its’ course, without interference.

 

To the mind the instruction to “desire nothing” is an anathema. But, the instruction is not to the mind, it is to the awareness that underlies all. It is basically telling the mind to cease and desist and let our basic underlying nature take over. Just be! Just let everything be as it is, without thought, judgment, or control.

 

We can’t control the mind. It is going to attempt to control our experience regardless of our attempts to stop it. So how do we “desire nothing?” We simply let the mind do its thing and not latch onto it and believe in it. We simply let it go. We watch it but we don’t feed it. We let thoughts flow through awareness like clouds through the sky. Just experiencing them but giving them no attention. This will result in the mind slowly, slowly, slowly quieting down. It will never completely stop. It will just provide more and longer gaps between its actions. In these gaps between thoughts we can “desire nothing.”

 

What St. John was driving at was that in order to attain an awakening, an enlightenment, we must stop chasing after things. We must stop attaching to things. We must stop desiring them. This would suggest that “desiring nothing” is a prerequisite for enlightenment. But, could St. John have cause and effect confused. Perhaps “desiring nothing” is actually results from awakening rather than the other way around. Regardless, if “desiring nothing” is a component of enlightenment then by practicing “desiring nothing” we can move closer to an awakening.

 

The human has desires. Many are built into our DNA. Through evolution they have been found to help insure survival. So, desires should not be seen as right or wrong, good or bad. They are simply a fact of life. Indeed, there is nothing wrong with wanting a better life situation, companionship, a delicious meal, to get better at golf, etc. The difference resides in whether we can accept what is and not be attached to a particular outcome. So, if we don’t get the promotion, if we can’t afford to go out to a top restaurant, we are unable to attract a particular companion, we don’t improve at golf, etc. we need to simply accept that this is the way things are and not stress about it. So, “desiring nothing” doesn’t mean that you strive for the end of desires. Rather it means to strive for equanimity, the loss of attachment to the outcome, the acceptance of what is, and not getting upset about it.

 

Contemplative practices are techniques to help quiet the mind and bring about a state of “desiring nothing.” Each practice moves us towards non-judgmental awareness, towards accepting things as they are, in other words, towards “desiring nothing.” For St. John the practice was contemplative prayer, for the Buddha, it was meditation, for the yogis it’s yoga. There are many paths to the same goal. But, all involve practicing being in the present moment and accepting it just as it is.

 

So, engage in contemplative practice and learn to “desire nothing”

 

“The root of suffering is attachment.” – Buddha

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are a also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

Higher Mindfulness Predicts Lower ADHD.

psyjdc Leave a comment

Higher Mindfulness Predicts Lower ADHD.

 

By John M. de Castro, Ph.D.

 

“Unlike many tools for ADHD, mindfulness develops the individual’s inner skills. It improves your ability to control your attention by helping to strengthen your ability to self-observe, to train attention, and to develop different relationships to experiences that are stressful.” – Carl Sherman

 

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is most commonly found in children, but for about half it persists into adulthood. It’s estimated that about 5% of the adult population has ADHD. Hence, this is a very large problem that can produce inattention, impulsivity, hyperactivity, and emotional issues, and reduce quality of life. The most common treatment is drugs, like methylphenidate, Ritalin, which helps reducing symptoms in about 30% of the people with ADHD. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of the drugs appears to be markedly reduced after the first year. In addition, the drugs often have troublesome side effects, including nervousness agitation, anxiety, irritability, sleep and appetite problems, head and stomach aches, nausea, dizziness, and heart palpitations. If that’s not enough they can be addictive and can readily be abused. So, drugs, at present, do not appear to be a good solution, only affecting some, only for a short time, and with unwanted side effects.

 

There are indications that mindfulness training may be a more effective treatment for ADHD. It makes sense that it should be, as the skills and abilities strengthened by mindfulness training are identical to those that are defective in ADHD,  attention, impulse control, executive function, emotion control, and mood improvement. In addition, unlike drugs, it is a relatively safe intervention that has minimal troublesome side effects. Since mindfulness is so promising as a treatment, it is important to further investigate the role of mindfulness in ADHD and its treatment.

 

In today’s Research News article “Self-Reported Mindful Attention and Awareness, Go/No-Go Response-Time Variability, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.” (See summary below). Keith and colleagues recruited a group of college students with previously diagnosed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and a group without ADHD. The students performed a go-no-go task in which they pushed a button each time a small square was presented on a computer screen and did not press the button when a different stimulus appeared. The go-no-go task is a standard test for attentional ability. They also completed measures of mindfulness, ADHD, anxiety, and depression.

 

They found that there was a strong relationship between mindfulness and ADHD, anxiety, depression, and attentional ability with high mindfulness scores predicting low ADHD scores, anxiety, and depression and high attentional ability. The students who were diagnosed previously with ADHD compared to non-ADHD students had significantly higher ADHD scores and attentional ability, and lower mindfulness scores.

 

These results are correlational, so causation cannot be determined. These results, however, are in line with previous research findings that mindfulness in adults is associated with better attentional ability and lower depression, anxiety, and ADHD. This provides further evidence for the association of low mindfulness with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the potential for mindfulness training to be a safe and effective treatment for ADHD.

 

“mindfulness seems to be training the same areas of the brain that have reduced activity in A.D.H.D. That’s why mindfulness might be so important. It seems to get at the causes.” – James M. Swanson

 

CMCS – Center for Mindfulness and Contemplative Studies

 

This and other Contemplative Studies posts are also available on Google+ https://plus.google.com/106784388191201299496/posts and on Twitter @MindfulResearch

 

Study Summary

 

Keith, J.R., Blackwood, M.E., Mathew, R.T., Lecci, L.B.  Self-Reported Mindful Attention and Awareness, Go/No-Go Response-Time Variability, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mindfulness (2017) 8: 765. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0655-0

 

Abstract

The abilities to stabilize the focus of attention, notice attention lapses, and return attention to an intended object following lapses are precursors for mindfulness. Individuals diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are deficient in the attentional and self-control skills that characterize mindfulness. The present study assessed the relationship between mindfulness and ADHD in young adults using the Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS), a computerized Go/No-Go task (the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA)), the World Health Organization Adult Self-Report Scale (ASRS), a tool used as an adult ADHD screen, the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). We recruited 151 adult volunteers (ages 18 to 40); 100 with confirmed ADHD diagnoses and 51 control participants. Overall, participants with prior diagnoses of ADHD scored lower on the MAAS than controls and ASRS scores were strongly negatively correlated MAAS scores. Attention performance index, response time, and response-time variability subscales of the TOVA were positively correlated with MAAS scores and negatively correlated with ASRS scores. Intrasubject response-time variability on the TOVA, a parameter associated with attention lapses, was also strongly negatively correlated with MAAS scores. Overall, participants’ self-reported mindfulness, as measured by the MAAS, was strongly related to self-reports on a clinical measure of attention disorders, anxiety, depression, and multiple indices of concentration and mind wandering on a standardized Go/No-Go task, the TOVA.